Carp

Hacking the Carp Compiler

This doc contains various tips and tricks, notes, explanations and examples that can help you make changes to the Carp compiler. Be forewarned that it’s not an exhaustive guide book, and likely will remain a hodgepodge of accumulated remarks, observations and hints contributed by people that have modified the compiler in the past.

Note: General familiarity with compilers and compilation terminology is assumed.

Structure

The Carp compiler source lives in the src/ directory. Carp is, roughly speaking, organized into four primary passes or components:

Each source file plays a part in one or more components/phases in the compiler. The sections below briefly describe the purpose of each stage and list important source files. You can use these sections to get a rough idea of what files you might need to edit in order to alter the functionality of a particular phase.

Note: Some sources contain definitions that are important or used in pretty much every phase of the compiler, in result some files may appear more than once in the sections below.

Parsing

The parsing phase translates .carp source files into abstract syntax trees (AST). In carp, AST nodes are represented using an abstract data type called XObj. XObjs are ubiquitous across the compiler and are used in several different phases and contexts. Every XObj consists of:

• An Obj which is the representation of some carp source code as an abstract data type
• Info: which contains additional information about the source code that generated an Obj (e.g. its location in a source file)
• Ty: An valid carp Type for the Obj, as determined by the type system.

The following sources are important for parsing:

• Parsing.hs – parsing logic that translates carp source code into abstract syntax.
• XObj.hs – defines the valid Carp AST nodes.

Dynamic Evaluator

As stated in the Macro guide the dynamic evaluator is the central component in the compiler. As the name suggests, the evaluator evaluates parsed carp code (XObjs) and prepares it for emission. Evaluation entails:

• Expanding macros and dynamic functions
• Resolving bindings to other forms
• Requesting type inference for forms
• Requesting borrow checking for forms

In addition to the XObjs corresponding to the source file being compiled, the evaluator relies on a Context–Context is a global object that contains state for the compiler. The compiler’s Context is comprised of several environments, defined by the Env type–which hold references to known bindings. Different environments are used by different phases of the compiler to evaluate forms, resolve types, and, generally speaking prepare code for emission.

Binders are another important abstract data type used in evaluation. Any value that’s bound to a name in a source program is translated into a binder, which is comprised of the XObj of the form bound to the name, as well as additional metadata for the binding. Binders are added to the environments in the Context.

The following sources are important for evaluation:

• Eval.hs – this is the entry point for the evaluator.
• Obj.hs – Defines Context which carries compiler state across evaluation passes in the form of Envs, defines Env which holds Binders from names to XObjs.
• Primitives.hs – builtin functions or “keywords” that do not evaluate their arguments
• Commands.hs – builtin functions or “keywords” that evaluate their arguments
• StartingEnv.hs – defines the starting environment for the compiler to work with. All commands and primitives are registered here, so that evaluation passes can use them.
• Lookup.hs – Functions for looking up Binders in a given environment (Env).
• Expand.hs – Functions for traversing forms and doing syntactic analysis. Historically also expanded macros (that functionality was moved into Eval.macroExpand).
• Infer.hs – Functions for performing type inference – entry point into the type system.
• Qualify – Qualifies symbols with appropriate module names.

Some other pieces of the type system and borrow checking mechanisms could be included in this list as well, but this list captures the core functionality related to evaluation. Generally speaking, the evaluation component is the conductor of our compilation symphony and orchestrates all the other parts of the compiler.

Note: For a more in depth look at the dynamic evaluator, see the section on inner workings in the Macro guide

Type System

The type system is responsible for checking the types of Carp forms and ensuring programs are type safe. It also supports polymorphism and is responsible for replacing polymorphic types with concrete types.

Carp types are represented by the Ty data type.

The following sources are important for the type system:

• Types.hs – defines the Ty data type, which represents valid carp types. Also contains unification checking code to determine whether or not two types are compatible. Also contains mangling code, that translates carp type names with valid C identifiers.
• TypeError.hs – defines type checking errors.
• AssignTypes.hs – Assigns concrete types to variables.
• Polymorphism.hs – Given a concretized polymorphic function, determines the correct valid C identifier for the concrete function.
• Validate.hs – Checks that user-defined types are valid.
• Constraints.hs – Determines and solves constraints between types and type variables in an environment.
• Concretize.hs – Transforms forms that involve polymorphic types into concrete types.
• InitialTypes.hs – determines the initial type of a given XObj (AST node).
• GenerateConstraints.hs – determines type constraints for a given form.

Borrow Checking/Ownership System

Borrow checking an lifetime parameters are an extension of the type system. All of the files that are important to the type system are likewise important for the borrow checker.

Code Emission

The compiler’s final job is to emit C code corresponding to the source Carp input. Emission relies heavily on the concept of Templates – effectively a structured way to generate C strings based on evaluated Carp AST nodes.

The following sources are important for the code emission system:

• ArrayTemplates.hs – Templates for C code corresponding to Array use in Carp.
• StaticArrayTemplates.hs – Templates for C code corresponding to StaticArray use in Carp.
• Deftype.hs – Templates for C code corresponding to user defined structs in Carp (aka product types) (also contains some other logic for registering bindings for such types).
• Sumtypes.hs – Templates for C code corresponding to user defined sumtypes in Carp (also contains some other logic for registering bindings for such types).
• StructUtils.hs – Templates for C code corresponding to utility functions for Carp structs.
• Template.hs – General compiler instructions for generating C code.
• ToTemplate.hs – Helper for creating templates from strings of C code.
• Scoring.hs – determines an appropriate sort order for emitted C bindings based on typing and XObj information.
• Emit.hs – Emits generated C code based on evaluated, compiled Carp source code.

Other sources

In addition to the sources listed above, there are other miscellaneous source files that serve different purposes in the compiler:

• Repl.hs – defines repl functionality, such as keyword completion, repl commands, etc.
• Util.hs – various utility functions
• ColorText.hs – supports colored output in the Repl/compiler output.
• Path.hs – Filepath manipulation functions.
• RenderDocs.hs – Functionality for generating documentation from annotated carp Code.

Mini HowTos

Select compiler changes are more frequent than others and have common high-level steps. The following sections provide some guidance on making such changes.

Adding a new Primitive

If it doesn’t require anything fancy or out of the ordinary, adding a new primitive to the compiler entails the following:

1. Define your new primitive in Primitives.hs
2. Add your primitive to the starting environment using makePrim in StartingEnv.hs

Define your Primitive

Primitives are functions of the Primitive type:

type Primitive = XObj -> Context -> [XObj] -> IO (Context, Either EvalError XObj)

Every primitive takes an xobj, the form that represents the primitive, a compiler context, and a list of XObjs the primitive form’s arguments. Primitives return a new Context, updated based on the logic they performed, and either an XObj or evaluation error that’s reported to the user.

For example, here’s how the defmodule primitive maps to the Primitive type:

(defmodule Foo (defn bar [] 1))
 |         |-----------------|
 XObj      [XObj] (arguments)

The Context argument captures the state of the compiler and doesn’t have a corresponding direct representation in Carp forms.

In Primitives.hs, you should name your primitive using the naming scheme primitive<name>, where <name> is the name of the symbol that will call your primitive in Carp code. For example, defmodule is given by the primitive primitiveDefmodule.

Most of the time, primitives have three core steps:

• Pattern match on their argument XObjs
• Lookup existing binders in the current Context
• Perform some logic based on the type of argument XObjs, then update the Context as needed.

Let’s step through each of these core steps by implementing a simple immutable primitive. The immutable primitive will take a variable (the name of a form passed to a def) and mark it as immutable, preventing users from calling set! on it.

• Step 1. Pattern match on arguments.

  First thing’s first, our primitive, in carp code, should look like this:

  (immutable my-var)
  

  This means that our primitive should only take a single argument XObj, and that argument should be a Sym.

  Let’s match some patterns:

  primitiveImmutable :: Primitive -- our new primitive
  primitiveImmutable xobj ctx [XObj (Sym path@(SymPath) _)] =
    -- TODO: Implement me!
  primitiveImmutable _ _ xobjs = -- any other number or types of xobj arguments are incorrect! Let's error.
    return $ evalError ctx ("`immutable` expected a single symbol argument, but got" ++ show xobjs) (info xobj)
  

  And that’s all we need to do to pattern match!

• Step 2. Lookup binders in the current context

  Assuming immutable gets a correct argument, our next step is to use the Sym XObj it received to find out if the symbol is bound to a variable or not.

  Lookup.hs defines functions for looking up bindings in the various environments contained in a context. We’ll call lookup functions to check whether or not the symbol argument we get is bound to a def form (in which case it’s a variable). If the symbol isn’t bound to a def we’ll error.

  So, we’ll get the binding for our argument (a Binder), match against the binding’s XObj and continue working only if it’s a def.

  primitiveImmutable :: Primitive -- our new primitive
  primitiveImmutable xobj ctx [XObj (Sym path@(SymPath) _)] =
    let global = contextGlobalEnv ctx
        binding = lookupInEnv path global
    in  case binding of
          Just (_, Binder meta (XObj )) -> -- TODO: This is a def! Great. Do more work here.
          _ -> -- anything that isn't a def; error
            return $ evalError ctx ("`immutable` expects a variable as an argument") (info xobj)
  primitiveImmutable _ _ xobjs = -- any other number or types of xobj arguments are incorrect! Let's error.
    return $ evalError ctx ("`immutable` expected a single symbol argument, but got" ++ show xobjs) (info xobj)
  

• Step 3. Perform logic; update the Context

  Finally, now that we’re certain we’ve got a def, we’ll just perform our special logic then update the context with our modified binder.

  To keep things simple, all we’ll do in this primitive is update the binder’s MetaData with a new key called immutable set to true. We can later use the value of this meta field to prevent calls to set!.

  primitiveImmutable :: Primitive -- our new primitive
  primitiveImmutable xobj ctx [XObj (Sym path@(SymPath) _)] =
    let global = contextGlobalEnv ctx
        binding = lookupInEnv path global
    in  case binding of
          Just (_, Binder meta def@(XObj Def _ _)) ->
            let oldMeta = getMeta meta
                newMeta = meta {getMeta = Map.insert "immutable" trueXObj oldMeta}  -- update the binder metadata
            in  return $ ctx {contextGlobalEnv = Env (envInsertAt global path (Binder newMeta def))} -- update the context with the binder and it's new meta and return
          _ -> -- anything that isn't a def; error
            return $ evalError ctx ("`immutable` expects a variable as an argument") (info xobj)
  primitiveImmutable _ _ xobjs = -- any other number or types of xobj arguments are incorrect! Let's error.
    return $ evalError ctx ("`immutable` expected a single symbol argument, but got" ++ show xobjs) (info xobj)
  

And that wraps up the core logic of our primitive. To make it available, we just need to register it in StartingEnv.hs.

Add your primitive to the starting environment

To add a primitive to the starting environment, call makePrim:

, makePrim "immutable" 1 "annotates a variable as immutable" "(immutable my-var)" primitiveImmutable

That’s about it. Note that this implementation just adds special metadata to bindings–to actually prevent users from calling set! on an immutable def we’d need to update set!’s logic to check for the presence of the immutable metadata.

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